Nsd 225 Study Guide

Review for test #3 1. Calcium is not well absorbedless that 30% 2. A major mineral means you need more of it. 3. The six major minerals are calcium, phosphorus, magnesium, sodium, potassium, and chlorine. The rest are trace minerals, which are not less important, but you just need them in less amounts. 4. Minerals are 0 calories. 5. The best source of iron is beef, liver, or meat. 6. The best source of zinc is beef, liver, or meat. 7. Vitamin C will help you absorb iron twice as much (double the absorption). 8. Sea salt, they say, contains iodide, but it is silly to pay more and get nothing extra for it.Sea salt is not better than table saltiodine leaves as a gas (sublimes from solid to gas form). 9. We need iodide to make thyroid hormone, which is important because it influences our overall metabolism. Also, if you don’t have enough iron, you will be fatigued, and children that are deficient won’t grow. Finally, you need it to prevent goiter, an enlargement of the thyr oid (around the Great Lakes and west = the goiter belts). 10. The major function of zinc: for many enzymes systems to work, for sexual maturation and growth, for wound healing, for protein metabolism and immune system. 1. Fluoride deficiency will result in dental caries (holes in teeth). 12. There is 500 mg of calcium carbonate in Tums, but since calcium carbonate is only composed of 40% calcium, there is 200 mg of pure calcium in Tums. 13. Iron is VERY POORLY absorbed; only 5-10% of iron is absorbed by normal adults. 14. The best source of potassium is potatoes. 15. If you don’t have enough potassium, it may result in cardiac arrest or an irregular heartbeat (death) [also caused by too much]. 16.The major function of magnesium that it is needed as part of bones and part of muscle; also, it is an activator of more than 300 enzymes, and it’s necessary to maintain electrical potential of nerve and muscle and for transmission of never impulses. 17. The major function of c hromium is that it acts as a cofactor for insulin, which is needed for maintaining normal glucose metabolism (chromium in humans declines with age). 18. Phosphorus is present in all foods especially milk and milk products and liver and other animal-food protein sources. About half the phosphorus in the USA diet comes from milk, meat, poultry, and fish. 9. The main sodium food source is table salt. Only 10% of salt intake comes from natural content of foods, 15% is from salt added during cooking and at table, and 75% from salt added during processing and manufacturing. 20. To decrease high blood pressure, lose weight. Also, eating salt doesn’t help for high blood pressure. 21. Folate RDA is over twice non-pregnant RDA (for increased blood supply and for growth of baby) so folate supplements are often prescribed. Also, need zinc for growth, B-12 for red blood cells, calcium, phosphorus, and magnesium for bones.In addition, iron supplements during pregnancy and after delivery ar e recommended (baby should have enough to last 3-6 months**); fluoride is needed for teeth to begin in the 5th month of pregnancy. Nutrients to double during pregnancyfolate and probably iron. 22. You can NOT make up nutrients from a skipped breakfast. 23. Teenagers need to snack to get nutrients. 24. Adolescents aren’t well fed because they are too busy, eat out with their friends, skip breakfast, poor choice of snacks, avoid milk because they falsely think it is fattening, fear of becoming fat, use of fad diets especially by girls, and girls don’t get enough milk,. 5. Vegetables should be added first to an infant’s diet (after about 4-6 months). 26. Nutrition advice for anorexia patients included increasing caloric intake slowly (start at 800-1200 kcal), balanced diet, vitamin/mineral supplements, small frequent meals, use liquid supplements if necessary, and reduce caffeine. Also, don’t overload food, and persuade them they are thin enough. 27. Do not drink alcohol during pregnancy because even one binge may increase the risk of fetal alcohol syndrome (brain damage and physical retardation in infants). 28. The biggest advantage of breast milk during pregnancy is its immune factors. 9. Parents shouldn’t tell children to clean their plates. 30. How do you encourage children to try new foods? 31. In order to encourage a child to eat, be positive, when they are finished take their plate (they will snack later), don’t tell them there are people starving, don’t give rewards for eating. 32. Older folks who have baby aspirin every day bleed more in the gut (gastrointestinal bleeding), so they need more iron. 33. As you age, BMR decreases, you need less food and more exercise, your appetite decreases, and usually you don’t get enough nutrients. 34.The primary function of water is as a solvent; it transports nutrients to cells and removes waste. Also, it lubricates joints, food in the mouth, and helps lubricate food as it moves down the digestive tracts. Water is needed in the chemical reactions of digestion and must be available for digestion to occur. Water helps regulate body temperature by secreting sweat and is a structural component of the body (it is necessary to retain the shape of cells and tissues). 35. Complex carbs are: bread, cereal, pasta, and vegetables. 36. Thirst is not an adequate guide for infants, those who are sick, and athletes. 7. 50-75% of body weight is water. 38. Hyperactivity in children is caused by caffeine, not sugar. 39. There is NO nutrient herbal preparation that will cure cancer. 40. The best advice to prevent cancer is to eat a variety of foods, get all nutrients, and help prevent too much harmful junk getting into you. 41. RDA for calcium for adults 51 and older is 1200 mg. 42. There are 300 mg of calcium in a glass of milk (it doesn’t matter whether it is skim, whole, 1%, or 2%). 43. Common food allergies are nuts, soy, milk, and eggs. 44. When u nder stress, the hormone cortisol produces fat. 45.A critical period during pregnancy defines a time early in pregnancy when an event happens and will never happen again. It is a certain time during development in which the event occurs that will have irreversible effects on later developmental stages (it is usually a period of cell division). 46. Colostrum contains immune factors and anti-infection that will help a baby. 47. The WIC program is a nutritional education component that takes care of people who can’t take care of themselves. 48. The major function of phosphorusit has more functions that any other mineral. 49. Advantages of infant formula = father can feed. 0. Your peak bone mass is from 25-30 years old. 51. 5 reasons girls get osteoporosis: girls live longer, guys drink more milk, girls get pregnant and breastfeed, girls are smaller (have smaller bones). 1. Iron is NOT a major mineral. 2. Females need more iron—it is almost impossible for females to eat a diet providing the RDA for iron and stay within 2000 kcal. 3. Iron deficiency anemia may be the most prevalent deficiency disease in humans. 4. PICA = eating non-food items (laundry starch, clay, ice cubes), may denote low iron intake 5. OJ would help you absorb more iron from your diet (double the absorption). . Iodide toxicity also results in goiter. 7. Copper deficiency hardly ever happens. 8. Fluoride is not essential, but is essential for teeth. 9. Chromium deficiency results in impaired glucose tolerance. 10. Sodium has a small role in high blood pressure. 11. Monosodiumglutamate (MSG) adds sodium big time. 12. The major function of iron is that it is a constituent of hemoglobin in red blood cells and myoglobin in muscle. Also, iron is essential in transportation of oxygen from lungs to tissues and it’s needed for oxidation-reduction reactions. 13. Minerals are essential, but do not provide energy (no calories).Many are needed to make body structures such as bones, need ed as activators for enzyme systems, and they are poorly absorbed and can definitely be harmful if taken in excess. 14. 99% of calcium is in the bone with 1% in body fluids. 15. Dairy council said calcium may have an effect on weight loss. 16. Phyates acid in seeds, nuts, and grain decrease calcium absorption. 17. Females do not have enough calcium! 18. You MUST get enough calcium from childhood to age 25. 19. Calcium is enriched in some sources such as OJ and bread. 20. Most people don’t know what’s in the supplements they take. 1. 10 million Americans over 50 have osteoporosis, 1. 5 million have a bone fracture, 1 in 5 who have a hip fracture die. Women lose 6 inches from osteoporosis. 22. Phosphorus in excess in the diet probably does not negatively affect calcium absorption. The problem is that high carbonated beverages/soda take the place of milk intake. 23. The FDA cited over 18 manufacturers of Coral Calcium for making false claims that the supplement is a cure- allthe U. S. Marshalls seized $26 million worth. 24. Phosphorus is an essential component of bone mineral, where it occurs in the Ca:P of 2:1.About 85% of the phosphorus in the adult body is found in bone. Phosphorus is absorbed very well by the small intestine as free phosphate. 25. Availability of phosphorus in grains, especially bran, is doubtful because of phytates in grain which will bind with phosphorus. 26. 4 functions of calcium: bone formation, response to nerves, blood clotting, normal rhythm of heartbeat. 27. Functions of phosphorus (more functions than any other mineral): absorption of glucose, transport of fatty acids, buffering system. 28. Phosphorus is very well absorbed70% 29.Functions of magnesium: bones, muscle, enzyme activator, electrical impulse. 30. Americans age 15-24 have a HIGHER death rate than 20 years ago, not nutrition related but due to violent death and injury, alcohol and drug abuse, unwanted pregnancies, STDs. 31. By 18 months, the brain growth is 90 % complete and by 10 years, 95% complete, so there is no real adolescent spurt in head circumference. 32. The two major complications related to teenage pregnancy are low birth weight infants (LBW) and pre-eclampsia, which is toxemia of pregnancy characterized by hbp, albuminuria, edema of feet and legs. 33.Over 90% of adolescents snack. 34. There’s NO scientific evidence that foods such as chocolate, soft drinks, or peanut butter cause acne. 35. Peer pressure influences eating behavior. 36. Eating disorders increase among college-aged females and ballet dancers because they want to be in control. 37. Eating disorders should not be treated by amateurs—you need a team of health professionals: psychiatrist, dietitian, physician. 38. No particular nutrient of type of food can retard the aging process. 39. Buillion is clear soup—no nutritional value. 40. Stories of unusual longevity in other countries were found to be untrue. 1. Lactose intolerance = eat cheese, yog urt, or lactaid milk. 42. The elderly need to either increase calories or decrease calories, depending upon whether they are skinny or fat. 43. As you age, basal metabolic rate decreases each decade after maturity (you need less calories to stay alive, need to move more). 44. No RDA for 100 year olds, only for 70 and under. 45. Dehydration is the worst thing for you because you can die from it, especially athletes. 46. Infant birthweight is the single most important indicator of the infant’s future health status.A low birthweight (LBW) baby is defined as weighing less than 5. 5 lbs. 47. Risk factors for pregnancy include heavy smoking, alcohol abuse, age 15 or under, among others. 48. You need . 4 mg of folic acid/day (pregnancy). 49. Effects of nutrient deficiencies during pregnancy include: calories (low infant birthweight), vitamin D (LBW), folate (miscarriage and neural tube defect—brain and spinal cord defects) 50. During pregnancy, women should be under the care of a health professional. 51. One of the smallest increases recommended is for energy.Pregnancy requires only 300 extra kcal per day during the 2md and 3rd trimesters. 52. During pregnancy, women should select foods of high nutrient density. 53. Weight gain should be in second half of pregnancy. 54. 25-30 lbs. = total weight gain for pregnant women. 55. Practices to avoid during pregnancy: limit caffeine, stop smoking, do not take any prescribed medications, do not use street drugs, do not diet, do not drink alcohol. 56. Advantages of breast feeding: nutritionally superior to any alternative, contains a variety of anti-infectious factors and immune cells, mother’s uterus shrinks faster. 57.Colostrum: a yellow milk-like secretion from the breast, rich in protective factors that comes into the breast before milk is ready for secretion. It starts in first day or so—may be present for up to 2 weeks. 58. The infant doubles his/her birth weight in the first 3 to 4 months; tr iples before year one. 59. For the first four months, 1/3 of the calories are needed for growth. During 4-12 months, the baby needs 10% or less for growth and the rest for activity. 60. Start new foods one at a time so that allergies can be detected. Rice cereal is usually started first mixed with formula to make it very dilute. 1. Never feed honey to an infant since honey may contain botulina spores. 62. Don’t feed baby skim milkbabies need calories and the fat for growth. 63. Age infants should start having table food = 1 year. 64. Reducing the risk of cancer = eat cruciferous vegetables (broccoli, cabbage, kale, turnips, brussel sprouts). 65. Red wine MIGHT help cancer (not sure). 66. Exercise when you are feeling stressedprevent cortisol from building up body fat. 67. Men eat less during stress and women eat more. 68. Mild depression or chronic stress harms immunity. 69.There is a link between stress and the urge to eat. 70. Over 75-90% of all doctor’s office visit s are for stress-related ailments and complaints. 71. Water is the most important nutrient. 72. You can live 30 days without food, but only 3 days without water (except in the desertless). 73. The average adult’s body weight is from 50-60% water, most controlled by hormones. 74. There’s no RDA for water. Sources of water include most beverages except those containing alcohol and caffeine; fruits and vegetables are 75% to 96% or more water, bread is 36% water, beef is 72% water. 5. Much water is lost through the skin, which cools the skin by evaporation. 76. Weight loss of over 20% by water leads to death. 77. Water intoxication is rarely seen in healthy people. 78. High altitude = low oxygenneed more water. 79. There is low chlorine in bottled water. 80. Football players in summer practice may lose 6-8% of body weight by water. 81. Drinks with more than 10% sugar won’t get into the body as fast (Gatorade has about 10% sugar). 82. You lose water through breathing out, sweating, and through excretions. Nsd 225 Study Guide Review for test #3 1. Calcium is not well absorbedless that 30% 2. A major mineral means you need more of it. 3. The six major minerals are calcium, phosphorus, magnesium, sodium, potassium, and chlorine. The rest are trace minerals, which are not less important, but you just need them in less amounts. 4. Minerals are 0 calories. 5. The best source of iron is beef, liver, or meat. 6. The best source of zinc is beef, liver, or meat. 7. Vitamin C will help you absorb iron twice as much (double the absorption). 8. Sea salt, they say, contains iodide, but it is silly to pay more and get nothing extra for it.Sea salt is not better than table saltiodine leaves as a gas (sublimes from solid to gas form). 9. We need iodide to make thyroid hormone, which is important because it influences our overall metabolism. Also, if you don’t have enough iron, you will be fatigued, and children that are deficient won’t grow. Finally, you need it to prevent goiter, an enlargement of the thyr oid (around the Great Lakes and west = the goiter belts). 10. The major function of zinc: for many enzymes systems to work, for sexual maturation and growth, for wound healing, for protein metabolism and immune system. 1. Fluoride deficiency will result in dental caries (holes in teeth). 12. There is 500 mg of calcium carbonate in Tums, but since calcium carbonate is only composed of 40% calcium, there is 200 mg of pure calcium in Tums. 13. Iron is VERY POORLY absorbed; only 5-10% of iron is absorbed by normal adults. 14. The best source of potassium is potatoes. 15. If you don’t have enough potassium, it may result in cardiac arrest or an irregular heartbeat (death) [also caused by too much]. 16.The major function of magnesium that it is needed as part of bones and part of muscle; also, it is an activator of more than 300 enzymes, and it’s necessary to maintain electrical potential of nerve and muscle and for transmission of never impulses. 17. The major function of c hromium is that it acts as a cofactor for insulin, which is needed for maintaining normal glucose metabolism (chromium in humans declines with age). 18. Phosphorus is present in all foods especially milk and milk products and liver and other animal-food protein sources. About half the phosphorus in the USA diet comes from milk, meat, poultry, and fish. 9. The main sodium food source is table salt. Only 10% of salt intake comes from natural content of foods, 15% is from salt added during cooking and at table, and 75% from salt added during processing and manufacturing. 20. To decrease high blood pressure, lose weight. Also, eating salt doesn’t help for high blood pressure. 21. Folate RDA is over twice non-pregnant RDA (for increased blood supply and for growth of baby) so folate supplements are often prescribed. Also, need zinc for growth, B-12 for red blood cells, calcium, phosphorus, and magnesium for bones.In addition, iron supplements during pregnancy and after delivery ar e recommended (baby should have enough to last 3-6 months**); fluoride is needed for teeth to begin in the 5th month of pregnancy. Nutrients to double during pregnancyfolate and probably iron. 22. You can NOT make up nutrients from a skipped breakfast. 23. Teenagers need to snack to get nutrients. 24. Adolescents aren’t well fed because they are too busy, eat out with their friends, skip breakfast, poor choice of snacks, avoid milk because they falsely think it is fattening, fear of becoming fat, use of fad diets especially by girls, and girls don’t get enough milk,. 5. Vegetables should be added first to an infant’s diet (after about 4-6 months). 26. Nutrition advice for anorexia patients included increasing caloric intake slowly (start at 800-1200 kcal), balanced diet, vitamin/mineral supplements, small frequent meals, use liquid supplements if necessary, and reduce caffeine. Also, don’t overload food, and persuade them they are thin enough. 27. Do not drink alcohol during pregnancy because even one binge may increase the risk of fetal alcohol syndrome (brain damage and physical retardation in infants). 28. The biggest advantage of breast milk during pregnancy is its immune factors. 9. Parents shouldn’t tell children to clean their plates. 30. How do you encourage children to try new foods? 31. In order to encourage a child to eat, be positive, when they are finished take their plate (they will snack later), don’t tell them there are people starving, don’t give rewards for eating. 32. Older folks who have baby aspirin every day bleed more in the gut (gastrointestinal bleeding), so they need more iron. 33. As you age, BMR decreases, you need less food and more exercise, your appetite decreases, and usually you don’t get enough nutrients. 34.The primary function of water is as a solvent; it transports nutrients to cells and removes waste. Also, it lubricates joints, food in the mouth, and helps lubricate food as it moves down the digestive tracts. Water is needed in the chemical reactions of digestion and must be available for digestion to occur. Water helps regulate body temperature by secreting sweat and is a structural component of the body (it is necessary to retain the shape of cells and tissues). 35. Complex carbs are: bread, cereal, pasta, and vegetables. 36. Thirst is not an adequate guide for infants, those who are sick, and athletes. 7. 50-75% of body weight is water. 38. Hyperactivity in children is caused by caffeine, not sugar. 39. There is NO nutrient herbal preparation that will cure cancer. 40. The best advice to prevent cancer is to eat a variety of foods, get all nutrients, and help prevent too much harmful junk getting into you. 41. RDA for calcium for adults 51 and older is 1200 mg. 42. There are 300 mg of calcium in a glass of milk (it doesn’t matter whether it is skim, whole, 1%, or 2%). 43. Common food allergies are nuts, soy, milk, and eggs. 44. When u nder stress, the hormone cortisol produces fat. 45.A critical period during pregnancy defines a time early in pregnancy when an event happens and will never happen again. It is a certain time during development in which the event occurs that will have irreversible effects on later developmental stages (it is usually a period of cell division). 46. Colostrum contains immune factors and anti-infection that will help a baby. 47. The WIC program is a nutritional education component that takes care of people who can’t take care of themselves. 48. The major function of phosphorusit has more functions that any other mineral. 49. Advantages of infant formula = father can feed. 0. Your peak bone mass is from 25-30 years old. 51. 5 reasons girls get osteoporosis: girls live longer, guys drink more milk, girls get pregnant and breastfeed, girls are smaller (have smaller bones). 1. Iron is NOT a major mineral. 2. Females need more iron—it is almost impossible for females to eat a diet providing the RDA for iron and stay within 2000 kcal. 3. Iron deficiency anemia may be the most prevalent deficiency disease in humans. 4. PICA = eating non-food items (laundry starch, clay, ice cubes), may denote low iron intake 5. OJ would help you absorb more iron from your diet (double the absorption). . Iodide toxicity also results in goiter. 7. Copper deficiency hardly ever happens. 8. Fluoride is not essential, but is essential for teeth. 9. Chromium deficiency results in impaired glucose tolerance. 10. Sodium has a small role in high blood pressure. 11. Monosodiumglutamate (MSG) adds sodium big time. 12. The major function of iron is that it is a constituent of hemoglobin in red blood cells and myoglobin in muscle. Also, iron is essential in transportation of oxygen from lungs to tissues and it’s needed for oxidation-reduction reactions. 13. Minerals are essential, but do not provide energy (no calories).Many are needed to make body structures such as bones, need ed as activators for enzyme systems, and they are poorly absorbed and can definitely be harmful if taken in excess. 14. 99% of calcium is in the bone with 1% in body fluids. 15. Dairy council said calcium may have an effect on weight loss. 16. Phyates acid in seeds, nuts, and grain decrease calcium absorption. 17. Females do not have enough calcium! 18. You MUST get enough calcium from childhood to age 25. 19. Calcium is enriched in some sources such as OJ and bread. 20. Most people don’t know what’s in the supplements they take. 1. 10 million Americans over 50 have osteoporosis, 1. 5 million have a bone fracture, 1 in 5 who have a hip fracture die. Women lose 6 inches from osteoporosis. 22. Phosphorus in excess in the diet probably does not negatively affect calcium absorption. The problem is that high carbonated beverages/soda take the place of milk intake. 23. The FDA cited over 18 manufacturers of Coral Calcium for making false claims that the supplement is a cure- allthe U. S. Marshalls seized $26 million worth. 24. Phosphorus is an essential component of bone mineral, where it occurs in the Ca:P of 2:1.About 85% of the phosphorus in the adult body is found in bone. Phosphorus is absorbed very well by the small intestine as free phosphate. 25. Availability of phosphorus in grains, especially bran, is doubtful because of phytates in grain which will bind with phosphorus. 26. 4 functions of calcium: bone formation, response to nerves, blood clotting, normal rhythm of heartbeat. 27. Functions of phosphorus (more functions than any other mineral): absorption of glucose, transport of fatty acids, buffering system. 28. Phosphorus is very well absorbed70% 29.Functions of magnesium: bones, muscle, enzyme activator, electrical impulse. 30. Americans age 15-24 have a HIGHER death rate than 20 years ago, not nutrition related but due to violent death and injury, alcohol and drug abuse, unwanted pregnancies, STDs. 31. By 18 months, the brain growth is 90 % complete and by 10 years, 95% complete, so there is no real adolescent spurt in head circumference. 32. The two major complications related to teenage pregnancy are low birth weight infants (LBW) and pre-eclampsia, which is toxemia of pregnancy characterized by hbp, albuminuria, edema of feet and legs. 33.Over 90% of adolescents snack. 34. There’s NO scientific evidence that foods such as chocolate, soft drinks, or peanut butter cause acne. 35. Peer pressure influences eating behavior. 36. Eating disorders increase among college-aged females and ballet dancers because they want to be in control. 37. Eating disorders should not be treated by amateurs—you need a team of health professionals: psychiatrist, dietitian, physician. 38. No particular nutrient of type of food can retard the aging process. 39. Buillion is clear soup—no nutritional value. 40. Stories of unusual longevity in other countries were found to be untrue. 1. Lactose intolerance = eat cheese, yog urt, or lactaid milk. 42. The elderly need to either increase calories or decrease calories, depending upon whether they are skinny or fat. 43. As you age, basal metabolic rate decreases each decade after maturity (you need less calories to stay alive, need to move more). 44. No RDA for 100 year olds, only for 70 and under. 45. Dehydration is the worst thing for you because you can die from it, especially athletes. 46. Infant birthweight is the single most important indicator of the infant’s future health status.A low birthweight (LBW) baby is defined as weighing less than 5. 5 lbs. 47. Risk factors for pregnancy include heavy smoking, alcohol abuse, age 15 or under, among others. 48. You need . 4 mg of folic acid/day (pregnancy). 49. Effects of nutrient deficiencies during pregnancy include: calories (low infant birthweight), vitamin D (LBW), folate (miscarriage and neural tube defect—brain and spinal cord defects) 50. During pregnancy, women should be under the care of a health professional. 51. One of the smallest increases recommended is for energy.Pregnancy requires only 300 extra kcal per day during the 2md and 3rd trimesters. 52. During pregnancy, women should select foods of high nutrient density. 53. Weight gain should be in second half of pregnancy. 54. 25-30 lbs. = total weight gain for pregnant women. 55. Practices to avoid during pregnancy: limit caffeine, stop smoking, do not take any prescribed medications, do not use street drugs, do not diet, do not drink alcohol. 56. Advantages of breast feeding: nutritionally superior to any alternative, contains a variety of anti-infectious factors and immune cells, mother’s uterus shrinks faster. 57.Colostrum: a yellow milk-like secretion from the breast, rich in protective factors that comes into the breast before milk is ready for secretion. It starts in first day or so—may be present for up to 2 weeks. 58. The infant doubles his/her birth weight in the first 3 to 4 months; tr iples before year one. 59. For the first four months, 1/3 of the calories are needed for growth. During 4-12 months, the baby needs 10% or less for growth and the rest for activity. 60. Start new foods one at a time so that allergies can be detected. Rice cereal is usually started first mixed with formula to make it very dilute. 1. Never feed honey to an infant since honey may contain botulina spores. 62. Don’t feed baby skim milkbabies need calories and the fat for growth. 63. Age infants should start having table food = 1 year. 64. Reducing the risk of cancer = eat cruciferous vegetables (broccoli, cabbage, kale, turnips, brussel sprouts). 65. Red wine MIGHT help cancer (not sure). 66. Exercise when you are feeling stressedprevent cortisol from building up body fat. 67. Men eat less during stress and women eat more. 68. Mild depression or chronic stress harms immunity. 69.There is a link between stress and the urge to eat. 70. Over 75-90% of all doctor’s office visit s are for stress-related ailments and complaints. 71. Water is the most important nutrient. 72. You can live 30 days without food, but only 3 days without water (except in the desertless). 73. The average adult’s body weight is from 50-60% water, most controlled by hormones. 74. There’s no RDA for water. Sources of water include most beverages except those containing alcohol and caffeine; fruits and vegetables are 75% to 96% or more water, bread is 36% water, beef is 72% water. 5. Much water is lost through the skin, which cools the skin by evaporation. 76. Weight loss of over 20% by water leads to death. 77. Water intoxication is rarely seen in healthy people. 78. High altitude = low oxygenneed more water. 79. There is low chlorine in bottled water. 80. Football players in summer practice may lose 6-8% of body weight by water. 81. Drinks with more than 10% sugar won’t get into the body as fast (Gatorade has about 10% sugar). 82. You lose water through breathing out, sweating, and through excretions.

Forward the Foundation Chapter 1

Part I Eto Demerzel DEMERZEL, ETO-†¦ While there is no question that Eto Demerzel was the real power in the government during much of the reign of Emperor Cleon I, historians are divided as to the nature of his rule. The classic interpretation is that he was another in the long line of strong and ruthless oppressors in the last century of the undivided Galactic Empire, but there are revisionist views that have surfaced and that insist his was, if a despotism, a benevolent one. Much is made, in this view, of his relationship with Hari Seldon though that remains forever uncertain, particularly during the unusual episode of Laskin Joranum, whose meteoric rise – Encyclopedia Galactica [1] 1 â€Å"I think Hari,†** said Yugo Amaryl, â€Å"that your friend Demerzel is in deep trouble.† He emphasized the word â€Å"friend† very lightly and with unmistakable air of distaste. Hari Seldon detected the sour note and ignored it. He looked up from his tricomputer and said, â€Å"I tell you again, Yugo, that that's nonsense.† And then-with a trace of annoyance, just a trace-he added, â€Å"Why are you taking up my time by insisting?† â€Å"Because I think it's important.† Amaryl sat down defiantly. It was a gesture that indicated he was not going to be moved easily. Here he was and here he would stay. Eight years before, he had been a heatsinker in the Dahl Sector-as low on the social scale as it was possible to be. He had been lifted out of that position by Seldon-**made into a mathematician and an intellectual-more than that, into a psychohistorian. Never for one minute did he forget what he had been and who he was now and to whom he owed the change. That meant that if he had to speak harshly to Hari Seldon-for Seldon's own good-no consideration of respect and love for the older man and no regard for his own career would stop him. He owed such harshness-and much more-to Seldon. â€Å"Look, Hari,† he said, chopping at the air with his left hand, â€Å"for some reason that is beyond my understanding, you think highly of this Demerzel, but I don't. No one whose opinion I respect-except you-thinks well of him. I don't care what happens to him personally, Hari, but as long as I think you do, I have no choice but to bring this to your attention.† Seldon smiled, as much at the other's earnestness as at what he considered to be the uselessness of his concern. He was fond of Yugo Amaryl-more than fond. Yugo was one of the four people he had encountered during that short period of his life when he was in flight across the face of the planet Trantor-Eto Demerzel, Dors Venabili, Yugo Amaryl, and Raych-four, the likes of which he had not found since. In a particular and, in each case, different way, these four were indispensable to him-Yugo Amaryl, because of his quick understanding of the principles of psychohistory and of his imaginative probings into new areas. It was comforting to know that if anything happened to Seldon himself before the mathematics of the field could be completely worked out-and how slowly it proceeded, and how mountainous the obstacles there would at least remain one good mind that would continue the research. He said, â€Å"I'm sorry, Yugo. I don't mean to be impatient with you or to reject out of hand whatever it is you are so anxious to make me understand. It's just this job of mine; it's this business of being a department head-â€Å" Amaryl found it his turn to smile and he repressed a slight chuckle. â€Å"I'm sorry, Hari, and I shouldn't laugh, but you have no natural aptitude for the position.† â€Å"As well I know, but I'll have to learn. I have to seem to be doing something harmless and there is nothing-nothing-more harmless than being the head of the Mathematics Department at Streeling University. I can fill my day with unimportant tasks, so that no one need know or ask about the course of our psychohistorical research, but the trouble is, I do fill my day with unimportant tasks and I have insufficient time to-† His eyes glanced around his office at the material stored in computers to which only he and Amaryl had the key and which, even if anyone else stumbled upon them, had been carefully phrased in an invented symbology that no one else would understand. Amaryl said, â€Å"Once you work your way further into your duties, you'll begin to delegate and then you'll have more time.† â€Å"I hope so,† said Seldon dubiously. â€Å"But tell me, what is it about Eto Demerzel that is so important?† â€Å"Simply that Eto Demerzel, our great Emperor's First Minister, is busily creating an insurrection.† Seldon frowned. â€Å"Why would he want to do that?† â€Å"I didn't say he wants to. He's simply doing it-whether he knows it or not-and with considerable help from some of his political enemies. That's all right with me, you understand. I think that, under ideal conditions, it would be a good thing to have him out of the Palace, off Trantor†¦ beyond the Empire, for that matter. But you think highly of him, as I've said, and so I'm warning you, because I suspect that you are not following the recent political course of events as closely as you should.† â€Å"There are more important things to do,† said Seldon mildly. â€Å"Like psychohistory. I agree. But how are we going to develop psychohistory with any hope of success if we remain ignorant of politics? I mean, present-day politics. Now-now-is the time when the present is turning into the future. We can't just study the past. We know what happened in the past. It's against the present and the near future that we can check our results.† â€Å"It seems to me,† said Seldon, â€Å"that I have heard this argument before.† â€Å"And you'll hear it again. It doesn't seem to do me any good to explain this to you.† Seldon sighed, sat back in his chair, and regarded Amaryl with a smile. The younger man could be abrasive, but he took psychohistory seriously-and that repaid all. Amaryl still had the mark of his early years as a heatsinker. He had the broad shoulders and the muscular build of one who had been used to hard physical labor. He had not allowed his body to turn flabby and that was a good thing, for it inspired Seldon to resist the impulse to spend all of his time at the desk as well. He did not have Amaryl's sheer physical strength, but he still had his own talents as a Twister-for all that he had just turned forty and could not keep it up forever. But for now, he would continue. Thanks to his daily workouts, his waist was still trim, his legs and arms firm. He said, â€Å"This concern for Demerzel cannot be purely a matter of his being a friend of mine. You must have some other motive.† â€Å"There's no puzzle to that. As long as you're a friend of Demerzel, your position here at the University is secure and you can continue to work on psychohistorical research.† â€Å"There you are. So I do have a reason to be friends with him. It isn't beyond your understanding at all.† â€Å"You have an interest in cultivating him. That, I understand. But as for friendship-that, I don't understand. However-if Demerzel lost power, quite apart from the effect it might have on your position, then Cleon himself would be running the Empire and the rate of its decline would increase. Anarchy might then be upon us before we have worked out all the implications of psychohistory and made it possible for the science to save all humanity.† â€Å"I see. But, you know, I honestly don't think that we're going to work out psychohistory in time to prevent the Fall of the Empire.† â€Å"Even if we could not prevent the Fall, we could cushion the effects, couldn't we?† â€Å"Perhaps.† â€Å"There you are, then. The longer we have to work in peace, the greater the chance we will have to prevent the Fall or, at least, ameliorate the effects. Since that is the case, working backward, it may be necessary to save Demerzel, whether we-or, at least, I-like it or not.† â€Å"Yet you just said that you would like to see him out of the Palace and away from Trantor and beyond the Empire.† â€Å"Yes, under ideal conditions, I said. But we are not living under ideal conditions and we need our First Minister, even if he is an instrument of repression and despotism.† â€Å"I see. But why do you think the Empire is so close to dissolution that the loss of a First Minister will bring it about?† â€Å"Psychohistory.† â€Å"Are you using it for predictions? We haven't even gotten the framework in place. What predictions can you make?† â€Å"There's intuition, Hari.† â€Å"There's always been intuition. We want something more, don't we? We want a mathematical treatment that will give us probabilities of specific future developments under this condition or that. If intuition suffices to guide us, we don't need psychohistory at all.† â€Å"It's not necessarily a matter of one or the other, Hari. I'm talking about both: the combination, which may be better than either-at least until psychohistory is perfected.† â€Å"If ever,† said Seldon. â€Å"But tell me, where does this danger to Demerzel arise? What is it that is likely to harm him or overthrow him? Are we talking about Demerzel's overthrow?† â€Å"Yes,† said Amaryl and a grim look settled on his face. â€Å"Then tell me. Have pity on my ignorance.† Amaryl flushed. â€Å"You're being condescending, Hari. Surely you've heard of Jo-Jo Joranum.† â€Å"Certainly. He's a demagogue- Wait, where's he from? Nishaya, right? A very unimportant world. Goat herding, I think. High-quality cheeses.† â€Å"That's it. Not just a demagogue, however. He commands a strong following and it's getting stronger. He aims, he says, for social justice and greater political involvement by the people.† â€Å"Yes,† said Seldon. â€Å"I've heard that much. His slogan is: `Government belongs to the people.'† â€Å"Not quite, Hari. He says: `Government is the people.'† Seldon nodded. â€Å"Well, you know, I rather sympathize with the thought.† â€Å"So do I. I'm all for it-if Joranum meant it. But he doesn't, except as a stepping-stone. It's a path, not a goal. He wants to get rid of Demerzel. After that it will be easy to manipulate Cleon. Then Joranum will take the throne himself and he will be the people. You've told me yourself that there have been a number of episodes of this sort in Imperial history-and these days the Empire is weaker and less stable than it used to be. A blow which, in earlier centuries, merely staggered it might now shatter it. The Empire will welter in civil war and never recover and we won't have psychohistory in place to teach us what must be done.† â€Å"Yes, I see your point, but surely it's not going to be that easy to get rid of Demerzel.† â€Å"You don't know how strong Joranum is growing.† â€Å"It doesn't matter how strong he's growing.† A shadow of thought seemed to pass over Seldon's brow. â€Å"I wonder that his parents came to name him Jo-Jo. There's something juvenile about that name.† â€Å"His parents had nothing to do with it. His real name is Laskin, a very common name on Nishaya. He chose Jo-Jo himself, presumably from the first syllable of his last name.† â€Å"The more fool he, wouldn't you say?† â€Å"No, I wouldn't. His followers shout it Jo†¦ Jo†¦ Jo†¦ Jo'-over and over. It's hypnotic.† â€Å"Well,† said Seldon, making a move to return to his tricomputer and adjust the multidimensional simulation it had created, â€Å"we'll see what happens.† â€Å"Can you be that casual about it? I'm telling you the danger is imminent.† â€Å"No, it isn't,† said Seldon, eyes steely, his voice suddenly hardening. â€Å"You don't have all the facts.† â€Å"What facts don't I have?† â€Å"We'll discuss that another time, Yugo. For now, continue with your work and let me worry about Demerzel and the state of the Empire.† Amaryl's lips tightened, but the habit of obedience to Seldon was strong. â€Å"Yes, Hari.† But not overwhelmingly strong. He turned at the door and said, â€Å"You're making a mistake, Hari.† Seldon smiled slightly. â€Å"I don't think so, but I have heard your warning and I will not forget. Still, all will be well.† And as Amaryl left, Seldon's smile faded. Would, indeed, all be well?

Analysis of the Strengths, Weaknesses and Threats of FedEx

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Reflections on Learning Related to Information Systems Research Paper

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The Themes of Heart of Darkness Essay Example for Free

The Themes of Heart of Darkness Essay â€Å"The Heart of Darkness† by Conrad is one of the great novels of English literature. This novel exposes the greed, malice and selfishness of the European men. They exploit the wealth of Africa in the name of civilizing the natives. They take away their ivory and in return gave them hunger, destitution, poverty, degradation and death. The English men of this novel lack morals and conscience. Conrad observed the hypocrisy of his country men and exposed it in a marvelous way in this short piece of art. Feder (1955) is of the view that Heart of Darkness is an allegory that takes into account the souls journey through purgatory and hell to salvation, and that expedition is analogous to the pursuit for the Holy Grail or is equivalent to expedition of Dantes Inferno. (p. 290) Conrad major objective in writing a sea-voyage is best expressed in one of his letter that manifests that his major concern was that the public mind fastens on externals, on mere facts, such for instance as ships and voyages, without paying attention to any deeper significance they might have. (Jean-Aubry, 1927, pp.320-321) The theme of Imperialism: â€Å"The Heart of Darkness† is another expose of imperialism like Conrad’s â€Å"An Outpost of Progress†. In â€Å"Heart of Darkness† Conrad vehemently denunciated imperialism and racialism without damning all men who through the accident of their birth in England were committed to these public policies. According to Eloise Knapp Hay (1963), â€Å" to a man for whom† â€Å"race† meant â€Å"nation† more than â€Å"pigmentation†, and for whom â€Å"nation† was a sacred image, the nineteenth century civilization of racialism as a means of commercial profit through tyranny was history’s most agonizing chapter. In conveying the effect upon his mind, he could only imagine the worst torments of hell invoke Virgil and Dante who had seen as if hell with their own eyes†¦..and add to their testimony what he had seen with his eyes in the Congo. Yet, like Virgil and Dante, Conrad lived in   a historical moment †¦everything that was good in England had been thrown, along with the bad, into the â€Å" competition in the acquisition of territory and the struggle for influence and control†, which, according to William Langer, â€Å"was the most important factor in the international relations of Europe† between 1890 and 1910. It seemed that when Conrad actually began the writing of â€Å"heart of darkness†, he was deeply absorbed in two questions: his loyalty, both as man and as writer, to England, and his acute mistrust of the way the â€Å"civilizing work† was being accomplished by the European powers in south-east Asia and in Africa. In this novel he brings before us the nature of â€Å"western superiority† in primitive lands. Reading this story repeatedly, we know that the dark English coast before him recalls for Marlow the darkness of modern Africa, which is the natural darkness of the jungle but more than that the darkness of moral vacancy, leading to the atrocities he has beheld in Africa. This moral darkness of Africa, we learn later, is not the darkness of the ignorance of the natives, but of the Whiteman who blinded themselves and corrupted the natives by their claim to be light-bearers. Talking of the roman conquest of England, Conrad says, it was â€Å"just robbery with violence, aggravated murder on a grand scale, and men going at it blind-as is very proper for those who tackle darkness†. What Romans had done in England, the English did in South Africa. Marlow admits that English conquests, like all others, â€Å"means the taking away it from those who have a different complexion or slightly flatter noses than ourselves,† though Kurtz went to the African jungle with an idea to civilize the natives; he saw his mission in Africa as that of torch bearer for white civilization. But very soon he starts extracting from the natives human sacrifices to himself as god. Finally, his hatred for the natives plunged to the depth out of which came his prescription of the only method for dealing with primitive people: â€Å"Exterminate the brutes!† Marlow will establish in his more lucid moments that what is black in Africa is what has a right to be there. If whiteness finally emerges as moral vacuity, blackness finally appears as reality, humanity and truth. The matter is more complex still, for along with the physical blackness of men and the metaphoric blackness of unchartered regions of the earth; the darkness Conrad has been suggesting all along is the forced expulsion of whatever is displaced by â€Å"light,† whatever is displaced by civilization-the expulsion of Africa’s native virtues by Europe’s self-righteousness. The European Whiteman in Africa is parasites; they are hollow; they have no personal moral vision of their inhumanity and folly. They are also collapsible, because their society’s institutions are incapable to hold them up. Ivory has become the idol of the foolish run of European pilgrims; and Kurtz is no exception.† all Europe contributed to the making of Kurtz.† Criminality of inefficiency and pure selfishness: Walter Allen (1955) believes that, â€Å"The Heart of Darkness of the title is at once the heart of Africa, the heart of evil- everything that is nihilistic corrupt and malign – and perhaps the heart of man†. (p. 122) According to Conrad (1958) himself, the story of â€Å"heart of darkness† is about the â€Å"criminality of inefficiency and pure selfishness when tackling the civilizing working Africa†. (p. 37) In the story Marlow makes much of the inefficiency and selfishness he sees everywhere along his journey in Africa. But it is the criminality of the civilizing work itself that receives the heaviest emphasis in the novel as a whole. J.W.Beach (1932) believes that Kurtz is the representative and dramatization of all that Conrad felt of futility and horror in what the Europeans in the Congo called â€Å"progress†, which meant the exploitation of the natives by the white men. Kurtz was to Marlow, penetrating this country, a name, constantly recurring in people’s talk, for cleverness and enterprise. But there were slight intimations, growing stronger as Marlow drew near to the heart of darkness, of traits and practices so abhorrent to all our notions of decency, honor and humanity that the enterprising trader gradually takes on the proportion of a ghastly and almost supernatural monster symbol for Marlow of the general spirit of this European undertaking. On his journey up the Congo, Marlow comes across the forsaken railway truck, looking as dead as the carcass of some animal; the brick maker idling for a year with no bricks and no hope of materials for making them; the â€Å"wanton   smashup† of drainage pipes abandoned in a ravine ; burst, piled up cases of rivets at the outer station and no way of getting them to the damaged steam boat at the Central Station; the vast artificial hole somebody had been digging on the slope- all these and many more are the examples of the criminality of the inefficiency. Wilson Follet believed that in this novel, â€Å"the European is shown drained, diseased, a prey to madness and unutterable horror and death†¦Ã¢â‚¬ Ã‚     This proves that the white men over there, except the company’s accountant, are inefficient and selfish. They themselves do nothing, whereas on the other hand they exploit the natives to the maximum, they extract the maximum workout of them and pay them three nine –inch long brass-wire pieces a week, which are insufficient to buy them anything. As such most of the natives are starving and dying. This novel is a very faithful accord of the cruelties and atrocities perpetrated on the natives of Africa by their European masters. The Historical theme: In Elizabethan times the Drakes and Franklins sailed from the light of England into the darkness of unknown seas, returning with the â€Å"round flanks† of their ships bulging with treasure. Nineteen centuries ago the incoming tide brought the Romans from the light of Rome into the darkness of England: the roman conquest of England was an aggravated murder on a large scale. Modern imperialism-represented by Conrad in â€Å"heart of darkness†- is not different from the ancient; the civilized white men of Europe have entered the blackness of Africa, and have united the natives. The white men come as imperialist traders but in reality for the sake of ivory they loot and plunder. For the sake of ivory the whites robed the natives of their very identity and existence. Their lives and their culture were destroyed to the maximum extent possible by the so called civilized men of the world who declared their task as â€Å"white man’s burden†. Works Cited Allen, Walter. 1955. The English novel; a short critical history. New York: Dutton. Beach, J. W. 1932. The Twentieth Century Novel; A study in Technique. New York:   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Century Co. Conrad, Joseph. 1958. Letters to William Blackwood; ed. W. Blackburn. Durham N.C.;   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Duke University Press. Feder. 1955. Marlows Descent into Hell. 19 Nineteenth-Century Fiction. 289-292 Hay, E. K. 1963. â€Å"The Political Novels of Joseph Conrad†. Chicago: University of   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Chicago Press. Jean-Aubry, G. 1927. Joseph Conrad: Life and Letters; Letter to Richard Curle, July 17,   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   1923.

Intellectual Traditions In Islam Religion Essay

Intellectual Traditions In Islam Religion Essay Islam after the death of Prophet Muhammad (P.B.U.H) spread far and wide and was accepted by different people of different languages, culture and lands. Hence it became enriched by the intellectual contribution of many individuals and communities in various diverse fields of learning such as philosophy, literature, law, theology, arts, mysticism and natural science. Thus, Islam was elaborated in a multitude of forms and interpretations and by the 1oth century, it completely flourished as a civilization To discuss the significance of these issues, a seminar entitled INTELLECTUAL TRADITIONS IN ISLAM was organized by the institute of Ismaili studies at the Mellor centre, Churchill College, university of Cambridge during 14-20 august 1994. This book contains the edited and reviewed versions of the papers presented at the seminar excluding Professors M. Mahdi, M. Arkoun and A Sachedinas contributions. The report is an overview of all the essays presented in this book excluding the essay Some Observations on the Religious Intellectual Milieu of Safawid Iran by John Cooper and Present Day Islam Between its Tradition and Globalization by Mohammed Arkoun. It discusses all the key points and topics addressed by different authors in their respective essays. ABOUT THE BOOK (SUMMARY) The concepts and the key points described in the book are discussed below with respect to each chapter: 1. Introduction The introduction is the key note address which was presented at the seminar by Dr. Aziz Esmail. He in his essay explores the key concepts of Intellectual Life, Tradition and Islam. He raises many questions about concept of an intellectual life. He asks about the designation and position of an intellectual in the society. He asks whether the intellectual thoughts and the intellectual themselves are very distantly placed from the society. He further confronts the readers by asking questions such as what is the place of intellect in ones persona. What is the relationship of intellect with feelings, character and most importantly with the faith of a person? He further explores the role of intellectual life in the development of personality and character and in the making of identity of a person. He asks what is the relation of intellect in our daily lives. What is its relation to ones relationship with God? How does it effect the relation of an individual with its society? Does the intellect enable any participation in the society or does it retards it? He confronts the readers with such questions and enables them to think, to review and to divulge in his thoughts. Furthermore, he deals with the concept of tradition and traditionalism. He defines the relationship of old age and youth with tradition. He says that the old age identifies with the past whereas the youth has a relationship of dependence of defiance with the past. He identifies the different models of schooling which provide the basis of relationship of an individual with his traditions. The author explains that the tradition becomes an object of anxiety and attention when it ceases to work not when it is actually at work. He says that you cant find the idea of traditionalism or tradition in traditional societies. He explains that the main confronting question facing the people today is that in this world which is characterized by a pluralism of tradition which tradition one should uphold? The other question is what is the future of any traditions in such a rapidly changing world? When the author talks about Islam he asks the meaning of Islam. He also asks what is the relationship of past and present in Islam. The author describes the challenge of relativism in todays world. Relativism says that all doctrines, ideas and values can be explained by reference to time and place. But if all ideas and values are thus explained, ones confidence in upholding a single culture or tradition is shattered. The author says that today the culture is becoming a supermarket of ideas, values and doctrines where one chooses according to taste not according to objective essence. It the past, community came first and the individuals second, today, the scenario is opposite. Today, in such a pluralistic world, there is a need of a genuine mutual appreciation between faiths. The author says that engagement with other faiths doesnt mean to surrender, for criticism too is a form of engagement. How Islamic theology may engage with the modern world without becoming a prisoner of the mode rn understanding of modernity is one of the major challenges facing Islamic thought today? 2. Intellectual Life in the First Four Centuries of Islam by Hugh Kennedy: The author in his essay surveys the intellectual life of the Muslims in the first four centuries of Islam. He also describes the development of the intellectual life in this era. He explains that the first main issue that confronted the Muslims after the death of Prophet Muhammad (P.B.U.H) was that of the leadership of the community. People raised many questions such as who should lead the community. How they should be chosen and what powers they should enjoy? There were two different groups of people who had two different view points. One group believed that the leadership should be inherited by the Ahl al-Bayt (family of the Prophet). The other idea that found favor was that of a tribal Sheikh. The early Islamic intellectuals faced a very important issue that how they were going to preserve and record the utterances and deeds of the Holy Prophet (P.B.U.H) and his companions, secondly, they faced the issue of explanation of Quran Sunna to the new Muslims who were Non-Arabs. Consequently, a whole series of sciences developed in order to solve these problems. These sciences include grammar, genealogy, poetry and history and were known as the Islamic sciences. Grammar was a part of such sciences. It became the essential constituent of all the intellectual activities as it was vital to understand the basis of religion. Science of genealogy also found its way in the minds of the Muslims intellectuals. It was used to establish relations between different tribes and people. To understand the Quran completely, it was equally important to learn the language and thoughts of the Prophets contemporaries. So, poetry of pre-Islamic Arab and the early days of Islam became a very important part of the Muslim Intellectual life. History was another aspect of systematization of learning. Historical writing came into form just due to the need to record the life of the Prophet (P.B.U.H) and the events of the Islamic conquests. The non-Islamic sciences that Muslims were concerned with were medicine, philosophy, astrology and astronomy. All these sciences were brought into the Islamic tradition by translations made from Greek language in the 9th century. The Muslims in the early era of Islam pursued only those sciences that they thought were practically useful for them. Philosophy was studied by Muslims because it was required for analysis of arguments and logic study of medicine was required for obvious reasons. Astronomy and astrology were regarded as practical sciences by Muslims because many of them believed in the influence of planets on peoples lives. The author highlights that in the early intellectual life of Islam certain subjects were studied because they were perceived to be useful and there was no structure of intellectual life for there did not exists any academic profession. Thus, in the first four centuries of Islam, there was no institutional frame work for intellectual life; people who were engaged in such activities lived on their private income. Overall, the Muslims in the four centuries of Islam were pre-occupied by Islamic sciences which developed from just being recordings of the early days of Islam to becoming immensely rich intellectual work. 3. Scientific and Philosophical Enquiry Achievements and reactions in Muslims history by Oliver Leaman: The author in his essay describes the development of scientific philosophical enquiry in the Muslim history. The author says that after the death of Prophet Mohammad (P.B.U.H), the Islamic empire expanded and extended to the various parts of Middle East where a variety of civilization were established for a very long time. The new Muslim rulers came into contact with people who had very sophisticated ideas about theology, medicine, astronomy and mathematics. Now they had to decide whether to reject this kind of learning or to study it. They chose to study it and learn from it and as a result a pluralistic society of different cultures and religious was formed There were basically two reasons for using the discoveries and theories which were present in the Middle East at that time. One was the need to argue and debate with the people of other religions and to persuade them to become Muslims. It was necessary to use the methodologies of the older religious to defend Islam and to prove to people what improvements Islam has brought. The other rational for using science and philosophy of existing cultures was a practical one. When the Muslims came to Syria, Iraq and later on Persia, they found out that those people had a high standard of living. They were relatively more educated and healthy. They had better management skills. The Muslims wanted to learn how they achieved this state of affairs. This resulted in a great deal of interest in early Islamic world for philosophical, scientific and medical discoveries which were all around them. The author further explains that these new communities had a bulk of philosophical works especially those of Aristotle and Plato. Philosophy is all about the ability to debate, to argue. There was a great demand by the people for philosophical material with which they could persuade others about the validity of their point of views. The philosophical literature was widely read in the first few centuries of Islam and great evidence of scientific work is also found. The author further explains that to the positive approach of the philosophers, thinkers and intellectuals towards ancient philosophy and science, the ulama had a different approach. They thought that if the Muslim intellectuals were forming a philosophy based on the philosophies of Plato and Aristotle then they were developing a philosophy based on pagan thought. They thought that Islam in itself contains the solutions of all the problems faced by the people. They argued that we need not approach ancient Greek philosophy for solutions of our problems. But the philosophers thought that if something is good or true there is no harm in incorporating it in our daily lives. The author says that the questions that arose as a result of all this debate were: how much is it acceptable for one to borrow from a culture that is not ones own? How far could Muslims incorporate secular knowledge in their own culture and still maintain their culture? The above mentioned debate was a dispute about who would sort out the theoretical problems of the Islamic world. Would it be the philosophers inspired by the Greek science and philosophy, or would it be the ulama and the fuqaha, the traditional Islamic scholars and jurists? 4. The Rational Tradition in Islam by Muhsin Mahdi: I would like to focus on the historical perspectives of the rational tradition in Islam. The author points out in the start of his essay that whenever in history Muslims including scientists, philosophers and mystics tried to express themselves, they had to use reason. The author traces back the history of rationalism from the age of enlightenment and the French revolution in European culture and history in the 17th and 18th centuries. It happened that some learned encyclopaedists started destructive rationalism by trying to get rid of religion and religious ideas, thoughts and prejudices. They wanted to establish a society that is purely based on reason. The author asks a question: how the rational tradition arose in Islam in the first place? He replies by saying that it arose after the death of the Prophet (P.B.U.H.) when Islam and Muslims faced the crisis of leadership. The question: who has the claim to rule Muslim religious community after the Prophet (P.B.U.H.)? Is it by the prophets designation of an imam or is it by election? The origin of Islamic religious thought and theology is based on this question. And, thus, begins the whole process of rationalism in Islam. Within the tradition and knowledge that came in from other cultures and societies to Muslims, the concept or idea of Neoplatonism also found its way. Neoplatonism is the theory that speaks of god as something that is hard to understand, that is above and beyond reason. Thus, Neoplatonism provided the revealed religions with a support. It taught them that the divinity is active; its not just a mind it is something that acts and causes things to be. Now as the rationalist ideas began to develop, the contradictions between the rationalists and the fundamentalists began. One illustration of rationalism in Islam was Abu Bakr Muhammad al-Razi, the physician who opposed all forms of human authority in matters of religious knowledge, even that of the prophet. He completely opposed prophecy and criticized religion. He proposed that organized religion was a device used by the evil men to establish their rule over mankind and that it leads to violence, conflicts and wars. The whole idea of extreme rationalism is to get rid of all religions and to form a society based purely on reason. But no tradition ever thought of a society completely based on reason. One can make justifications about prophecy, revelations and religious transactions. The author here states his point of view that the only way that a society can be held together and the only way that people can be encouraged to pursue virtues and avoid vices which may not always be in their rational interests is by a divine law and through a doctrine of reward and punishment hereafter. In Islam two kinds of rationalist traditions are found. One is that of Averroes (Ibn Rushd) who believed in acquiring rational knowledge to find a way to the divine. He believed that as one perfects it to its limits, then he has a vision of what is beyond it. The other tradition is that of Ibn al-Arabi who believed in practicing and learning from people and experiences to find the way to the divine. 5. The Limits of Islamic Orthodoxy by Norman Calder: Norman Calder in his essay firstly explains that in this essay he wants to discover the outside limits of Islamic Orthodoxy with respect to the Sunni Islam. The author defines the terms Orthodoxy and Orthopraxy. Orthodoxy means the right teachings whereas Orthopraxy means the right practice. According to the author, the Sunni Islam is a religion of Orthodoxy. The author describes that one of the places where the right teachings of Islam can be found are those books which are called Aqida or Aqaid in Arabic meaning creed. These books set out the agenda of beliefs that represent being a Muslim. The author gives the example of Christianity, that in the first five centuries of Christianity, they faced a debate about what it was you had to believe to be a Christian and they decided a creed under the authority of a council and the pope. But there is no such source of authority in Islam. There is no such council and there is no such creed that is found in which all the Muslims believe. According to the author one thing found common in all the creeds is the components of the Shahadat i.e. the belief that God is one and Muhammad (P.B.U.H) is the messenger of God. The author further explains that there are five possible forms of religions beliefs including scripture, community, gnosis, reasons and charisma. Some people claim that the way towards the knowledge of God is through scripture i.e. Gods revelation others claim that Gods self-revelation to man is through a community that has been chosen by God and in which correct belief is preserved. A third group claims that way towards knowledge of God is through gnosis i.e. mystic knowledge, experience or just mysticism. A fourth group claims that way towards understanding God is by using reason or by being rational. Finally, there are communities that believe that God has appointed throughout the generations one particular person to express His message, they are also claim that this particular person has the knowledge of God. All great religious traditions of the world including Hinduism, Islam Christianity have all fine elements described above. The author classifies different groups of believers according to the above mentioned forms. Within Islam, the Twelve Shia the Ismaili Shia are the communities which lay stress on charisma as the most important form of achieving knowledge of God. There are two sets of people in Islam which lay great stress on reason as the means of achieving knowledge of God. One group is represented by philosophers like Al-Farabi and Avicenna i.e. Ibn Sina. The other group is the Mutazila which are rejected by the Sunnis because they claim that they overstress the role of reason. The group representing gnosis or mysticism in Islam is the Sufis. According to the author, the Sunnis are the group that lie somewhere between scripture and community. The author further explains that the Sunnis have formed intellectual writing traditions, there literature to which they refer as the expression to their understanding of their relationship to God and His Prophet (P.B.U.H). This list of literary genres is as follows: Qisas Al Anbiya, Sirat Al-Nabi, Quran, Hadith, fiqh, Kalam, Tafsir and Sharh Al Hadith. At intellectual level, the limits of orthodoxy are represented by the contents of the set of books defined above. 6. Intellectual Life Among the Ismaili: An Overview by Farhad Daftary: The author firstly explains the history and beliefs of Ismailis. He says that the Ismailis maintain that the Prophet Mohammad (P.B.U.H) has appointed his cousin and son-in-law- Ali b. Abi Talib as his successor and that this designation or nass has been made divine command. They also believe that there is a permanent need of a spiritual leader with a particular Kind of knowledge (ILM) for guidance of mankind. They believe that after the death of Prophet, only Ali and succeeding imams possessed the required ILM and religious authority which enables them to act as the sole authority for interpreting the Islamic revelation. Thus, this doctrine of imamate forms the foundation of all the teachings and literary works of the Ismaili Shi is. The early Ismailis developed a cyclical history of revelation and a cosmological doctrine. These two concepts became the main components of theology. These two doctrines also explain the great appeal and popular success of the early Ismailis Dawa (the guiding mission led by teachers known as dais or missionaries. The establishment of the Fatimid state in 909 in North Africa proved to be a mile stone for the success of dawa. The Fatimid period is often known as the Golden Era of Ismailism. After the acquisition of the Fatimid state, the Fatimid Caliph-Imams didnt abandon their dawa activities aiming to extend their rule over the entire Muslim Umma, they retained their dawa and network of dais, operating both within and outside Fatimid states. Special institution was setup for the training of dais and instruction of ordinary Ismailis. The dais who were educated as theologians, themselves were the scholars and authors of Ismaili community. They produced great literary works on theology, law, philosophy and exoteric and esoteric subjects. In Egypt, the Fatimids created major libraries in Cairo, which grew into a centre of art, culture, Islamic and natural science. The Dais themselves were trained in jurisprudence and were acquired with knowledge of Hadith and other religious sciences as well as the languages and cultures of regions in which they operated despite being the sole representative of the Ismaili Dawa it Seems that very little is written by Ismaili authors on Dais who acted as missionaries, teachers and judges for the Ismailis of their community outside the Fatimid dominion. The high yearn for learning in Ismailis led them to conduct Majalis i.e. Lectures or teaching sessions for public. In 1005 Fatimid Caliph-Imam Al-Hakim (996-1021) formed an institution of learning known as Dar al-ilm, the house of knowledge or Dar al-Hikma in a section of Fatimid palace in Cairo. A multitude of religious and non- religious sciences were taught at Dar al-ilm which was equipped with a major library. Many Dais received training in Dar al-ilm. In the Fatimid period, the Ismaili law was codified by Al-Qadi Al-Numan under the guidance of the Fatimid Caliph-Imam Al-Muizz. His compilation the Daaim-al-Islam (The Pillars of Islam) served as the official legal code of the Fatimid state, Al-Qadi Al-Numan, on Fridays after the mid-day prayers conducted public sessions in Cairo at the mosques of Al-Azhar, Amr Al-Hakim, to explain the legal doctrines of the Ismailis jurisprudence to Ismailis. Much of the literary work and chronicles of Ismailis perished as a result of the Ayyubids harassment of Ismailis. These libraries were also destroyed and hence much of the literary work was also perished. After the persecution of Ismailis by Ayyubids in the Fatimid states, Hassan Sabbah founded the Nizari state in the fortress of Alamut in northern Persia. Hassan Sabbah was a learned theologian and he established an impress library at Alamut. Other major Nizari Fortresses in Persia Syria were also equipped with a signification collection of books, documents and scientific instruments. The Nizari Ismailis of the Alamut period used to compile chronicles in which events of the Nizari states were recorded accordingly. But most of these official chronicles preserved at Alamut and other Nizari fortresses perished in the Mongol attacks of 1256 or later on. After the invasion of Mongols in 1256, the Nizaris how began to observe taqiyya for extended period. Until the end of the 17th century, the Nizari Dawa met with particular success in Central Asia India. In the Central Asian tradition, the authentic works of Nasir Khusraw occupy a prominent role. Central Asian Nizaris have also preserved a bulk of Persian Nizari literature produced during the Alamut period in later times. The Syrian Nizaris have also formed another literary tradition based on Arabic, in which local ideas as well as Fatimid Ismaili thought found expression. The Nizari Khojas of the Indian sub-continent developed a distinctive tradition known as Satpanth or true path which is expressed in their hymn like Ginans written in different South Asian languages and later on recorded in the Khojki Script in Sindh by the Khoja community. These Ginans were written by Pirs or Dais to increase their appeal of message. The author acknowledges Ismailis as a community with the doctrine of Imamate as their central teaching. He successfully traces back the Ismaili literary traditions in his work. 7. Nasir Khusraw: Fatimid Intellectual by Alice C. Hansberger: The author Alice C Hunsberger in her essay focuses on the great Fatimid thinker and intellectual Nasir Khusraw. Nasir Khusraw who lived primarily in Khurasan in the 11th Century was an eminent Persian philosopher, writer and poet. He was a successful preacher of the Ismaili faith in Central Asia renown for his poetic teachings. He was so successful in preaching among people that those of other Islamic school turned viciously against him and he had to spend his last 15 or 20 year in exile in Yumgan in Badakhshan under the protection of a local Ismaili Prince. The author in her remarkable essay sheds light on his personality and his teachings. She narrates the story of an eagle from one of his poems. The essence of the story is that human beings have it all in them that carries them to the sky and brings them to the dust. The author is found to be saying that Nasir khusraw is far away from being a mystic and neither he is an ascetic rather he preaches his readers to become the best human beings they can by being fully in this world and using it for achieving self-perfection. Nasir Khusraw is the only philosophical writer of his era to have written all his writings in Persian language. He leaves us with three different genres of writing: a prose memoir of his travels, the safarnama, and his poetry gathered in his diwan and a no. of philosophical works in which he lays out the doctrines of Ismailism. His famous edited and published books include: Gushayish wa Rahayish, Jamial-Hikmatayn, Khwan al-Ikhwan, Shish Fasl, RawshanaI-nama, Wajh-i-din and Zad al-Musafirin. Nasir Khusraw earned his title Hakim through his broad training in philosophy and other sciences including finance and mathematics. In his writing, Nasir Khusraw shows a certain honesty and directness. He talks his hopes. His prose and poetry is so admired by people because it is plain and complex. Around his fortieth birthday Nasir Khusraw underwent a spiritual reawakening and left his privileged life in the royal Saljuq court and set out for a journey which was much esoteric rather than exoteric. The authors sheds light on a very important concept from Nasir Khusraws teachings that one must be in this world in order to achieve the higher world. He explains in his teachings the need of physical world for a life of faith because according to him it is the physical world that holds the tools for learning true wisdom, namely reason (or intellect and knowledge i.e. aql and ilm). Nasir Khusraw gets irritated by people who are ignorant. He compares them to all sorts of animals including donkeys, asses and noisy birds. In his book Wajh-i-Din Nasir Khusraw explains that animals act without knowledge, while angels know without acting. But it is human beings who must combine both action and knowledge. For Nasir Khusraw, intellect leads a believer to proper faith and strengthens his faith. The other concept that Nasir stresses in his teachings is the observance of the sharia. He criticizes people that they must observe sharia. He compares the observance of sharia with taking medicine when we are sick. Although we may not like the medicine but we have to do in order to heal our body. Similarly, the Prophet (P.B.U.H) is the physician and the medicine he brings to heal our souls is the sharia. Nasir Khusraw stresses that it is through the body that ones soul can be perfected by carrying out sharia. Since man is responsible for his actions, the effects of his actions are transferred to his soul leading ultimately to the purification or perfection of mans soul by observing the sharia. The author gives a great overview of the teachings of Nasir Khusraw in her essay. 8. Reason and Mystical Experience in Sufism by Annemarie Schimmel: The author in her essay sheds light on the concept of love, intellect, reason and experience in mysticism and in religion. She sheds light on different concepts by using references of Maulana Rumi and Iqbal. She starts her essay with some verses by Maulana Rumi and Iqbal in which they both in their own words point out the difference between intellect and love. According to them, intellect first ponders over things whereas love just jumps into the hearts of the matter without thinking of the consequences. Intellect is necessary to give us information i.e. Khabar whereas love gives us the direct vision i.e. nazar, The author quotes the story of a moth and a burning candle which Al-Hallaj has written in his Arabic book, Kitab al-Tawasin in which the moth is not satisfied with the sight and feeling, it want to burn itself and led to a new higher life. The Sufis present the idea of die before you die. The Sufis desire for Nazar i.e. the true experience that comes from love. The author also describes in the analysis of intellect and love, two other modes of perception, dhikr and fikr. Fikr literally meaning thought is necessary to understand the creations of this world. And dhikr literally meaning the constant remembrance of god is supposed to polish human heart and make it shine like a mirror. These two modes of thinking of fikr, intellectual thinking and of dhikr remembering god with love are always used together. Iqbal presents another idea about the intellect that as it makes to think and ponder over things it creates new idols every moment. But again in his poetry he tells us that these idols of intellect bow to love. The author highlights another aspect of mysticism that is expressing the love in words. She quotes Rumi as saying that when the pen comes to write the word love, its break into pieces. The pen breaks when it comes to write about love but the same pen has written a bulk of books and poetry about this very love. It is a paradox in literature that the mystics who stressed that ones who wrote numerous books. The mystics have been found to say that whatever they write is not by their intellectual powers it is all waridat things that come to the mystics. These literary works are produced even by illiterate people and when you read them if it looks as if it has been crafted with much intellectual effort. We have the examples of such writers such as Ibn al-Arabi and khwaja Mir Dard who claim that they didnt even think of it. These mystical writings have been opposed by Ulama and many scholars as dangerous and poison for untutored minds. The traditional saying finds its way here that: think about the work of god and the qualities of god, but do not think of gods essence. Again Iqbal quotes in his works that Quran also invites to seek signs in the horizons of this world and in ourselves. Thus, the author concludes by saying that intellectual activities are not to be excluded from the way of Sufis or the Muslims. The idea of looking at signs and pondering over them may be of great help to understand religion in a better context. At the end she quotes a verse by Rumi that I quote here: when you make a house for your chicken, a camel does not fit into it. And she concludes that intellect is a chicken and love is a camel- a great, proud and beautiful camel. 10. Woman, Half-the-Man? The Crisis of Male Epistemology in Islamic Jurisprudence by Abdulaziz Sachedina: The author introduces the readers to the sharia, the Islamic sacred law and the two spheres of human activity: those actions that relate humanity to god categorizaed as Ibadat (literally acts of honouring god, technically god-human relationships), and those actions that relate humans to fellow humans categorized as Muamalat (literally transactions, technically inter-human relationships ). According to the author the area of inter-human relationships demands rethinking and reinterpretation of the normative sources like the Quran and the sunna, under changed social conditions. One area particularly in inter-human relationships which is retarded in progress by interpretation by Muslim jurists is the personal status of muslim women. The madrasa tradition of learning in Islam has disregarded female voices in emerging issues of women and human rights. The redefinition of status of a muslim woman is a major issue that confronts the Muslim jurists in todays modern world. Muslim womens participation in legal-ethical matters where situational aspects can be best determined by women themselves only, is very essential. Without their participation in such discussions, womens rights will always depend on the patriarchal society. The author further discusses the male jurists and their female related rulings. He narrates his exp